edit this page Urban Energy; practical and theoretical issues by Smail Khennas
Energie en milieu urbain: considérations pratiques et théoriques
Dans cet article, l'auteur aborde certains aspects majeurs liés à l'utilisation de l'énergie en milieu urbain. L'auteur souligne la concentration et l'importance de la consommation énergétique urbaine ainsi que les flux de biomasse en provenance du mileu rural. Toutefois, du fait précisément de ces caractéristiques, le monde urbain recèle des solutions. Cet article est illustré par un exemple de la filière bois-charbon de bois de la région de Manica au Mozambique. Au plan théorique, l'auteur avance l'hypothèse d'un échange inégal villes-campagnes au détriment du monde rural. Cet échange qui s'applique à la biomasse-énergie constitue un frein majeur au dévelopement durable du monde rural. |
[top] [end]High concentration of energy consumption Urban areas are responsible for the bulk of household energy consumption. This is obvious for conventional energy (electricity, petroleum products etc.) but it is also true for traditional forms of energy such as biomass. The fuel which families use in urban areas is dependent largely on income level, and the ways they use energy are also very different. However, for people with low incomes, traditional energy accounts for most of the energy they use (Figure 1). When charcoal is the main source of energy the problem is even worse, because of the low efficiency in both the charcoal-making process in the rural areas, and in extracting energy from charcoal, mainly for cooking, but also for space heating in some countries.  Figure 1: Urban areas are still largely dependent on biomass |
Biomass fuel not only provides energy for poor rural populations, but also to people with higher incomes. In both cases, the fuels come from rural areas and the employment and income generated is crucial for rural populations.
Given the importance of traditional energy consumption in urban areas and the energy flow between urban and rural areas, policies aimed at reducing biomass consumption in urban areas will have a tremendous impact on the livelihood of rural populations. A decrease in biomass energy consumption in urban areas may mean less pressure on the forests in the short term. However, if people in rural areas find that they cannot sell wood for profit they may turn to other sources of income such as agriculture, for which land is needed which might previously have been used for forestry. The loss of income from selling fuel could also increase the number of people moving from rural areas towards the towns, where it is has been shown that each person will need to buy more fuel. The movement of people towards developed countries is now marginal, usually illegal, and thus less and less people send money back home. This money would previously have helped families to move upwards in the energy ladder. As new generations become integrated into the society of their new country, the links between the migrants and their family fall away.
Case study of energy flow in Mozambique
The following example describes how the price of fuel changes between charcoal-making regions and the urban areas where the product is sold to consumers, in a region close to the Zimbabwe border. Charcoal is the main cooking fuel in the urban areas of Chimoyo and Manica, which are located some 30km from the rural regions of Selva and Messica, where the charcoal is produced. Increasing consumption in towns and cities combined with inefficient charcoal production methods are contributing to the depletion of forests surrounding the urban areas. The charcoal is even sold in Beira which is more than 200km away from where the charcoal is made (see Figure 2). |
 Figure 2: Diagram of biomass flow, showing increasing cost of fuel as it moves into the urban areas |
Currently and in the foreseeable future, there are no sustainable and affordable options to charcoal consumption for most of the people living in urban areas. The prices in Messica and Selva remain relatively low, costing 10 000 to 15 000 Meticas per bag of 50kg (11 000 Meticas = 1 US$), but the fuel costs at least twice as much in urban centres. Most of the profit is taken by middlemen who have the income to buy in bulk and to invest in means of transport. This example shows how important it is to develop efficient techniques for making wood into charcoal. The introduction of improved techniques will increase the low income of charcoal makers and reduce the risk of charcoal prices increasing further in urban centres. At the moment, improved kilns in the region are completely unknown. Nationally, the University of Maputo is testing an improved kiln (casamansaise kiln) developed in Senegal which may reduce the consumption of firewood for charcoal-making by some 20-30%. It is important to look very closely at this technology and other available low-cost options to see if they are appropriate for Manica province. [top] [end]The historic tendency towards cleaner fuels We must first ask ourselves if it is positive to move up the energy ladder: from firewood to charcoal, to Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). History shows that, except in very unusual circumstances such as conflict, the quality of life has improved for those who have moved up the energy ladder and that a downward movement is hard to accept, and is associated with a decrease in social status. This historic trend does not mean that cultural problems associated with transitions in the pattern of consumption of energy must be overlooked. Despite this sort of evidence, there are still some analyses which suggest that not every household would agree.
However this upward trend is not steady, and the reverse situation may occur. Looking at the evidence from a survey carried out in 1987 in Dar Es Salaam, it was shown that among those households switching fuels, the majority had moved down the energy ladder because they did not have enough money, and not out of choice. Nevertheless those who wish to move downwards are always in a position to do so. [top] [end]Opportunities offered by urban concentrations Despite being at the root of many of the social and economic problems of marginalised people, living in urban areas offer some opportunities to alleviate these problems. - Poor urban populations are concentrated in areas of high population density. This provides an opportunity to disseminate experiences within the area, from region to region, and even from other continents.
- The high quantities of biomass consumed, and its concentration, produce a significant amount of waste (such as charcoal dust) which is likely to be recycled and upgraded, thus benefitting poor populations. ITDG is exploring the possibilities of recycling charcoal dust and developing small businesses in deprived urban areas in East Africa. In Nairobi alone, the potential is estimated at between 25 000 tonnes to 30 000 tonnes per year.
- In and around urban areas, there are industries, such as clothing, metal-working, chemical, and even those mineral industries situated close to the towns, which use equipment which does not use energy efficiently. These industries must be the first target for policies aiming at the rational use of energy. In some countries, Tunisia for instance, such policies are being implemented and significant savings are being achieved.
- Although it may seem obvious, dissemination on a wide and sustainable scale of improved biomass stoves, and equipment using fossil fuels (LPG stoves for instance) is still an issue in many cities. Access to more efficient fuels is limited by the amount of cash which a person has at a particular time and not by the price per unit of energy. If we take into consideration the quality of the service provided, in many cases traditional fuels in urban areas are more expensive than fossil fuels such as LPG. This means that poor people are spending more for each unit of energy than people who have access to modern fuels and equipment. A large part of subsidies provided for fuel is in fact benefiting people with high incomes. If it is to succeed, an approach to dissemination, particularly for improved stoves, must be business led (Ashley & Young, 1993) and must involve all the players; manufacturers, retailers, users etc. In some cases, micro-credit and/or a limited subsidy may help to create the conditions for a sustainable market
[top] [end]A fundamental problem: the unequal exchange of goods and money between urban and rural areas Changes in the way rural economies operate has led to a widening gap in wealth between urban and rural areas. This has led to massive migrations and a chaotic pattern of urbanisation. The causes of such a situation lie in the unfair trade between urban and rural areas. The price of goods produced in rural areas is very low and they are sold below their real value. This is not a problem if these commodities are used locally and the income stays in the local community. In fact just a fraction of these goods is used locally, and the bulk is transferred to urban areas (as wood for instance) or exported. Added up, this trade causes a massive transfer of value from poor rural economies to urban concentrations, and even developed countries may benefit. In the case of biomass, this unequal exchange can be seen in the way traditional energy supplies are sold at a price under their value i.e. the selling price does not allow the replanting of the depleted biomass in rural areas.  Mama, can we get the one with the biggest subsidy? (Illustration: Nigel Bruce) |
There are many political and social reasons which can explain the relationships between urban and rural economies in the field of biomass energy. Traditional energies, such as biomass, are a basic need, and an increase in price may trigger social upheavals. The relative social peace and the continuation of the current ruling parties are dependent upon the stability in urban areas. This explains why in some countries the price of traditional energy and other basic products is kept by the government below its real value, which is damaging for rural populations and benefits urban populations. Although historically there are examples of riots initiated by rural populations who feel cheated, the main social upheavals have their origin in urban communities when they experience a dramatic increase in the cost of basic items such as bread or energy.
This analysis may suggest that the gap between rural and urban populations will only be narrowed by a dramatic change in the way prices are determined nationally. Further, ways of empowering rural populations to get fair prices from those goods which are transferred to other areas must be introduced. This would reduce the gap between high income and low income populations and strengthen further the current projects implemented by numerous NGOs and Government institutions in rural areas. - Ashley, C & Young, P. Stoves for Sale: Practical hints for commercial dissemination of improved stoves, ITDG/IDEA/FAO/FWD/ARECOP, 1993 pp.39
[top] [end]Contents: Boiling Point 41: Household energy: the urban dimension  . |
Urban energy - a rapidly expanding issue - A place to feel at home - A social perspective on the family hearth in Africa - Urban Energy - practical and theoretical issues - Development of stoves for cooking and heating in China - The household energy market in urban Mali - What ever happened to kerosene as a cooking fuel - some experiences from Haiti - Energy issues in the small-scale industry sector in Dakar - Urban consumption of biomass energy in Morocco - Energy options for urban households in India - Biobriquettes - a competitive fuel for cooking - Household energy isnt all stoves - Mirte stoves in Ethiopia - An improved cooking stove for farming families
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